Pakistan :
History
History:
The region of Pakistan was one of
the cradles of civilisation. Stone-age hunter-gatherers lived on the Potohar
plateau and in the Soan Valley in northern Punjab 300,000 or more years ago.
Excavations on the Balochistan plateau show a more advanced culture which
flourished from 4000 to 2000 BCE. At Kot Diji in the Khairpur district, an
early bronze age culture developed in this period. These early civilisations
reached their peak in the Indus valley cities, of which Harappa is the most
notable. These societies had mastered town planning and pictographic writing.
In 327 BCE Alexander the Great
invaded with his Macedonian army. Later, Mauryans from India ruled the northern
Punjab area, to be replaced by Bactrian Greeks from Afghanistan and central
Asian tribes. Different religions prevailed in turn: Buddhism (under the
Mauryans), Hinduism and, with Arab conquest in the eighth century, Islam.
Two main principalities emerged
under Arab rule, that of al- Mansurah and that of Multan. The Ghaznarid sultans
gained ascendancy in Punjab in the 11th century. The subsequent ascendancy of
the Moghuls, who originated in Central Asia, lasted from 1536 to 1707; their
rule lingered nominally until 1857. They established a sophisticated imperial
administration and left a rich legacy of forts and walled cities, gardens and
gateways, mosques and tombs.
In the early 17th century European
traders arrived on the subcontinent. Through the East India Company, the
British became the dominant force. After the unsuccessful uprising against
Britain of 1857, the British took direct control. Slowly a national Muslim
identity emerged, championed by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817–89). The All India
Muslim League was founded in 1907.
As the subcontinent moved towards
independence, it became clear that Hindu and Muslim interests could not be
reconciled. The campaign to establish an independent Muslim state came to
prominence in the 1920s and 30s. It was led by the philosopher and poet
Mohammad Iqbal and Mohammad Ali Jinnah.
Pakistan was created, as an Islamic
state, out of the partition of the UK’s Indian Empire, at independence in
August 1947. It originally consisted of two parts, West Pakistan (now Pakistan)
and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), separated by 1,600 km of Indian territory.
Partition was followed by war with India over Kashmir and the mass migration of
Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs to resettle within the new borders, an upheaval which
led to violence, financial loss and death on a large scale. With the arrival of
Indian Muslims and departure of Pakistan’s Hindus and Sikhs, Pakistan became an
almost entirely Muslim society. Jinnah, who is honoured as the Quaid-i-Azam, or
great leader, died in 1948.
In 1956, Pakistan became a federal
republic. It has been under military rule for long periods. Its first Prime
Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, was assassinated in 1951. In 1958, martial law was
declared and political parties abolished. General (later Field Marshal) Ayub
Khan became President in 1960 and allowed a form of guided ‘basic democracy’.
However, failure to win the 1965 war against India and accusations of nepotism
and corruption undermined his position. In the east, the Awami League of Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman voiced the grievances of the Bengali population. Ayub Khan resigned
in 1969 and power was taken over by General Yahya Khan, who in December 1970
held the first national elections in independent Pakistan.
Mujib and the Awami League won an
electoral majority in Pakistan’s general election on a platform demanding
greater autonomy for East Pakistan. At the same time Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s
Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) gained a majority in the West. Despite Mujib’s
victory, he was prevented by the Pakistan authorities from becoming Prime
Minister of the combined state and the Awami League then issued their own plans
for a new constitution for an independent state in the East. As a result of the
military intervention that ensued, civil war broke out in the eastern region in
1971; the Indian army intervened in support of the Bengalis; Pakistan forces
withdrew and Bangladesh became an independent state. In 1972 Pakistan withdrew
from the Commonwealth but rejoined in 1989.
Under a new constitution introduced
in 1973, Bhutto became Prime Minister. He undertook agrarian reform and the
nationalisation of large sections of industry and the financial sector. In July
1977 the army, under General Zia ul-Haq, intervened in the urban unrest. Zia
declared martial law and arrested Bhutto who was convicted, after a
controversial trial, of conspiring to murder a political opponent. Despite
international appeals, he was hanged in April 1979. Zia promised elections
within 90 days, but ruled without them until his death. He assumed the
presidency and embarked on a programme of Islamisation. Martial law and the ban
on political parties were lifted in 1985, Bhutto’s daughter Benazir returned
from exile to lead the PPP and Zia died in a plane crash in August 1988.
Elections in November 1988 brought
the PPP to power in coalition with the Mohajir Qaumi Movement (MQM). However,
in October 1989 the MQM left the coalition and in August 1990 Bhutto was
dismissed by the President Ghulam Ishaque Khan and charged with corruption. The
National Assembly was dissolved and a caretaker leader installed until Islami Jamhoori
Ittehad led by Nawaz Sharif won a decisive election victory in October 1990.
Sharif pursued economic reforms and privatisation and instituted Sharia
(Islamic) law until 1993 when President and Prime Minister resigned under
pressure from the military, making way for fresh elections which brought
Benazir Bhutto back to power by a small majority.
In November 1996, President Sardar
Farooq Khan Leghari, prompted by the army high command and opposition leaders,
used the eighth amendment to the constitution, and dissolved the National
Assembly, bringing down the Bhutto government and alleging corruption,
financial incompetence, and human rights violations. New elections were held in
February 1997. The Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) – previously the main component
of the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad – won 134 seats in the National Assembly and
Sharif became Prime Minister. Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party retained only 18
seats. In April 1997, Sharif was able to gain the PPP’s support to achieve the
two- thirds majority necessary to repeal the eighth amendment, ending the
President’s ability to dissolve the National Assembly. He also took over from
the President the power to appoint Supreme Court judges and military
chiefs-of-staff.
In October 1999, Sharif ordered the
dismissal of Army Chief of Staff General Pervez Musharraf, and refused
permission to land for the commercial aircraft in which he was returning to
Karachi (from an official visit to Sri Lanka). The army countermanded the Prime
Minister’s orders and immediately seized power, dismissing the government and
arresting Sharif. Musharraf justified his actions as necessary to restore both
the economy and the deteriorating political situation. Pending the restoration
of democracy, the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG) suspended
Pakistan from the councils of the Commonwealth.
Kashmir
The dispute with India over Kashmir
escalated sharply in 1999, when militants with Pakistani military support
crossed the Line of Control at Kargil and engaged in major battles with Indian
forces. More than 1,000 people were killed in the fighting. In July 1999,
Pakistan finally agreed to withdraw from Indian-controlled territory, but the
state of tension, which had been heightened by the nuclear testing of 1998
(India had detonated five nuclear devices on 11 and 13 May 1998 and Pakistan
responded with six on 28 and 30 May), persisted.
At the invitation of Indian Prime
Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, in 2001 President General Pervez Musharraf
attended a summit in India, focusing on their dispute over Kashmir. Although
there was no substantive outcome, this first face-to-face meeting between
leaders of the two countries since 1999 was characterised by a new interest on
both sides in seeking a resolution to this long- standing problem. However, by
May 2002 India had mobilised a vast army along the Line of Control and the two
countries were again on the brink of war.
Tension eased considerably in
October 2002 when India reduced its number of troops along the Line of Control;
diplomatic relations were restored in August 2003 and a ceasefire along the
Line of Control was agreed and took effect from 26 November 2003. Peace talks
between India and Pakistan began in 2004, marking a historic advance in
relations between the two countries. The talks led to the restoration of
communication links and a range of confidence-building measures, including co-
ordinated relief efforts in the aftermath of the October 2005 earthquake.
Constitutionally, the Prime Minister
serves as the chief adviser to President of Pakistan on critical matters and
plays an influential role in appointment in each branch of the military
leadership as well as ensuring the control of the military through chairman
joint chiefs. Powers of the Prime Minister have significantly grown with a
delicate system of the check and balance by each branch. The position was
absent during years of 1960–73 and 1977–85 due to imposed martial law. In each
of these periods, the military junta led by the President had the powers of the
Prime Minister.
The incumbent and current holder in this position is Imran
Khan, elected in this capacity after the nationwide general elections held in
August 2018.
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